Free energy generators and the 2nd law of thermodynamics

Veniamin Filimonov

Abstract

The 2^nd law of thermodynamics is valid for thermal machines, which transform energy of a source firstly into the form of heat and further into a free energy (FE) in thermodynamic sense of the latter. Its extrapolation on all kinds of energy producing systems is wrongful. The FE generators (FEG) represent themselves devices for pumping-over dispelled energy of space to an operating volume (OV) of FEG and its transformation into FE, which requires a creation of a negative spin temperature (or somewhat analog of the latter) in an OV. This condition can be satisfied in auto-oscillation and rotated spin systems. The implementation of the self-maintained FEG is possible by means of the following: a) Starting impulse converting the system into a state having negative temperature T < 0; b) Cycle-driver that forces oscillations with a frequency equal to the resonant frequency of a system; c) Converter that off-takes FE generated beyond the system, and d) Takeoff of a part of FE for cycle-driver feeding.

Introduction

Machines yielding much energy than it is spent for their operating are called free energy generators (FEG). Here and below we use the term “free energy” in its rigid thermodynamic sense that means a part of total energy of a system transformable into mechanical work. It is common that descriptions of FEG actual devices and projects can be found in advanced scientific journals and patent applications. Despite FEG actual devices are plentiful, academic scientific journals do not publish information and discussion on FEG, suggesting they are “perpetual motion” and are therefore impossible within the 1^st and the 2^nd laws of thermodynamics.

Existing FEG can be distributed between some groups according to the physical phenomenon used for the energy transformation therein. They are:

1. Magnetic and electromagnetic devices [4,5];
2. Electric and solid state electronic systems [2,6,7];
3. Electric discharge and arc devices [3,8-10];
4. Hydrodynamic and cavitation devices [11,12] and
5. Capillary and gravitational systems [13,14].

There are, also, some devices of complex action and/or using unclear phenomena for their operation.
As to construction features, one can differ FEG including and excluding mechanical rotation [3].

Thermodynamical consideration of the free energy generators

United expression of 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics is common. While spreading that expression to descript all the processes including non-reversible ones, one obtains the following non-equality [15]:

∆G = ∆H - T(∆S + dS) ≤ 0      (1)

The 2^nd law of thermodynamics covering both equilibrium and non-equilibrium systems is valid within the following suggestions that used to accept as self-evident ones:

dS ≥ 0;   dc/dt ≥ 0;   T ≥ 0           (2)

Where dS is entropy production in the process, dc/dt is variation of so-called process coordinate, T is a temperature. Let us analyze hypothetical possibilities of the above function and parameters sign change from plus to minus.

1. dS < 0. Negative values of the entropy production take place within self-organizing systems. As to the systems proper, the (1) non-equality is not valid within them but it is suggested that it is correct for the complex of “the system + the environment”. We cannot state if the later suggestion was ever proved experimentally. It is rather the automatic sequel of the 2^nd law of thermodynamics extrapolation on the above systems, so its validity for such systems is not evident.

2. dc/dt < 0. The “time arrow” reversion may be also ascribed, in particular, to the self-organizing systems, the processes accompanied with the entropy reduction take place wherein.
Here the same stipulations are valid as in a previous case. The typical objection against the possibility of the condition 2 implementation is the fact that in the case the “causality principle” would be disrupt, so the “sequel” being the result of some force action precedes the “cause” itself, namely the moment of applying the force to the system.

Meanwhile, the “causality principle” itself is no more that the common sequel of the 2^nd law of thermodynamics and its validity is restricted by the area of the law application.

As it is evident from the special theory of relativity analysis [16], the signal transmitting with the super-light velocity v > c would cause a disruption of the “causality principle” being the sequel of the 2^nd law under the proper selection of frame of reference, even without the “time arrow” reversion. At 60^th such a possibility was considered as a solely hypothetical one [16]. Now there are experimental evidences of the physical interaction transmitting with the super-light velocity in various systems, both in laboratory single-quantum experiment [17] and in cosmological observations [18]. These facts prove unanimously that initiated and directed transfer of the entropy portions from “the receiver” to “the transmitter” meaning the possibility of the “2^nd type perpetual motion” construction, in principle, can be implemented.

3. T< 0. This situation cannot be implemented within the thermodynamic temperature scale. However, while analyzing condensed systems one consider the temperature not as a kinetic parameter as in a gaseous state: T = mv²/2k, where m is a gas molecule mass, v is a velocity of the latter, k is the Boltzmann’s constant, but as a statistical one that is defined by the relation of basic (0) and excited (i) energy levels population:

T = – (E_i - E_o)/k ln (N_i / N_o)

Within such a consideration, states having infinite and/or negative temperature are possible beyond the equilibrium state of system with finite and positive values of the system energy. As one can know, negative temperatures (-Ґ < Т ≤ - 0) were observed within a physics of rotated spin systems [19], with the former situation not below the null temperature Т = 0, but above the positive infinite temperature Т = +Ґ (see fig.1)

Worth noting that the negative temperatures are peculiar to non-equilibrium systems and are the sequel of outer fields and forces manipulation that causes the reversion of the functions 1,2 signs from plus to minus. Therefore, the below consideration deals with not a global disruption of the 2^nd law but with systems never covered by the 2^nd law in its common version.

Strictly speaking, the 2^nd law was established as a conclusion of heat engines operation analysis. Their (engines) working cycle includes a transformation of “the reservoir” energy (having any form, mainly a chemical one) into heat and then passing the work of expansion A_pV into the free energy (FE) (now having a form of mechanical or, further, electrical energy) – see fig.2 a.

Fig.2 Diagram of energy transformation a) heat machine b) another type machine

We suggest that an extrapolation of the 2^nd law to all types of systems is wrongful. So, engine excluding the “entropization” of energy while its transformation into heat (see fig.2 b) may operate, in principle, having the coefficient of performance (COP) h = 1 at any temperatures of a system and environment, which contradicts an orthodox consideration of the 2^nd law.

Let us consider formal possibilities of the negative temperatures implementation, yet keeping in mind the fact of non-identity of thermodynamic and spin temperatures.

Transformation of energy in spin rotated systems

Let us continue the above consideration using a spin system, say, of ferromagnetic type, as an example. This system contain magnetic domains having the magnetization vectors coinciding with the spin vectors and aligned with the direction of external magnetic field [20]. However, the latter condition is fully satisfied at the null temperature Т = 0 but some domains disoriented as related to the outer field direction at the T > 0. The angles of domains disorientation keep some discreet values corresponding to allowed numbers of spin projection to the outer field direction. Each domain direction have some energy value within the range E₀.. E_max: the more deviation, the more energy. So, under Т > 0 partial system disordering takes place, and population of corresponding spin excited energy levels has an exponential type distribution. Described state of the system can be demonstrated as follows (see fig.3 a):

Fig.3 Diagram for positive, negative and infinite temperature implementation in condensed matter

Let us change a direction of applied external field to an opposite one. After that magnetization vectors of the system firstly aligned with the direction of external magnetic field and having minimum of energy become directed in opposition to its new direction and gain maximum energy of excitation, and those of ferromagnetic domains disoriented by thermal movements gain less energy than the former ones. Correspondingly, reciprocal distribution of excited energy levels population takes place and a negative temperature must be ascribed to the system as a whole (see fig.3 c). This is accompanied by enhancing of the energy enthalpy along with conserving constant entropy value, which requires an identification of the energy source supplying deficient energy to the system. There are, commonly, three possible sources of energy:

(i)      The system itself (its enthalpy or energy yields of side processes occurring therein);
(ii)     An external field and
(iii)    An environment (having formally negative temperature, the system can absorb energy from outside by “heat” transfer even if the latter has null temperature, in corresponding with the Fourier law:

q - k grad T

where q is a heat quantity, k is a thermal conductivity).

After that a system can relax in such a way that its excited energy levels population becomes consistent with the former thermodynamic temperature. During a relaxation process the latter vary from a finite negative value to the value close to – Ґ (infinite negative temperature). Then a system gains infinite positive temperature passing the break of temperature scale in the direction of - Ґ ® + Ґ (fig.3 b). But before passing the break, while scanning the – Ґ point a system acquires ability to absorb energy by a heat transfer from indefinitely distant source due to the fact that temperature difference between that source and a system is formally infinite and positive (3). At the moment a system acquires ability to convert absorbed enthalpy to work with a coefficient of performance h equal to 1:

h = E_out/E_in≤ (T_sys - T_env)/T_sys1       (5)

where E_out and E_in are the output and input energy, correspondingly, T_sys is a system temperature, T_env is the same of environment. Described abilities of a system are valid after the temperature break passing, too, but they have then an opposite sign: so, at the temperature of +Ґ, according to (3), a reverse process of an energy removal from a system having indefinitely high speed or, say, a process of a heat transfer from a system to indefinitely distant reservoir having nonzero speed, takes place. As a sequel, a system cools down to the equilibrium with an environment.

As a result, we have a complete closed operation cycle that provides possibilities of both unlimited energy income to the system from indefinitely distant source having any low temperature and the same of the energy removal. Resulting change of both enthalpy and free energy of the system can be equal to zero если не additional possibility of directed energy removal outside the system and the former transforming into either another form of energy or work (4). For the purpose of such a transformation it is needed that a frequency of external magnetic field rotation w_ext coincide with the proper frequency of a system w_rel or, which is the same, that a period of an external field turning around t_ext were equal to a period of the system spin relaxation t_rel (where w_ext є 1/t_ext and w_rel є 1/t_rel):

w_ext є t_ext   w_rel є t_rel       (6)

i.e. the resonance condition might be satisfied. Otherwise we have two opposite cases (6a, 6b):

w_ext >t_ext   w_rel < t_rel       (7a)

w_ext <t_ext   w_rel > t_rel       (7b)

which causes either lack of time for the system reaching the infinitely negative temperature Т = -Ґ (7a), or enough time for the system reaching the infinitely positive temperature Т = +Ґ and relaxation up to the equilibrium with an environment within the cycle (7b). In both cases the system loses the property of FEG. So, for the optimal system operation as FEG it might be driven by the external signal (cycle driver) having the frequency w_ext = ( t_rel ) ^–1 , after that it can absorb energy from indefinitely large volume of environment in a form of quanta having following set of frequencies:

w_ext = n(E_i - E_i-1)/ћ      (8)

where n is a natural number (n = 1,2,3...), ¬ is a Plank’s constant.

Transformation of energy in selforganizing systems

As a definition, further we distinguish the terms of “phase of a system” and “state of a system” [15]. The former is a mean of a system organizing including a kind of links between a system elements and parts (in our consideration they are atoms and subsystems – domains – having various energies of excitation along with an equal excitation energy within the same subsystem) and, as a sequel, a degree of ordering of a system. The latter is the same plus the certain distribution of excited energy levels population within the same phase (this distribution is defined by thermodynamic temperature in the case of equilibrium phase). Naturally, a phase transformation accomplished under an external action without redistribution of energy levels population similar to that described above, can cause a transfer from a stable (equilibrium) state of one (disordered) phase having a minimum free energy to unstable state of other phase free energy of which has not a minimum value for that phase. Let us consider a relatively simple case of a system having two different stable states and can therefore be able to a self-organization, namely an oscillatory contour [21] (see fig.4).

Fig.4 Oscillation contour as a self-organizing system

Under a condition of no energy income from outside the system is in basic (equilibrium) state of disordered phase that has the following set of a system parameters (see fig.4 a):

U_C=0;  I_L=0      (9)

where U_C, I_L are a voltage applied to the capacitor and a current through the coil, correspondingly. While supplying to the system a portion of energy enough for the capacitor charging we therefore can accomplish a phase transition and to convert the system into the ordered phase able to implement alternately two different but equivalent stable states, neither of them to be equilibrium one (see fig.4 b,c):

U_C=0;  I_L=0      (10a)

U_C=0;  I_L=0      (10b)

Both of them have two cases differing by a sign of voltage (current in a circuit). They can transfer from one to another having a period of relaxation t_ext:

t_rel =1/(2w_rel)=1/2       (11)

where L, C are the inductance and the capacitance of the contour, correspondingly. Here, similar to the case of rotated spin system and after the same reason (see above), satisfaction of the resonance condition is crucial. The duration of described auto-oscillation process q after single act of excitation is defined, as it is known, by such a contour condition as its factor-of-merit Q:

Q = 1/R       (12a)
q = 2Qt_rel            (12b)

where R is resistance of a circuit that defines an energy dissipation (electricity-to-heat transformation) in the contour.

If one ascribes some analog of spin temperature T_sys to self-organizing system, one can realize that in a state (a) part of the system, namely capacitor, has a negative temperature after ending an external action (charging, “loading”) while another part of the system, namely coil, has a positive temperature, and in a state (b) vice versa. In the process, one part of the system passes a temperature discontinuity in the (-Ґ/+Ґ) direction, while another part at the moment passes a (-Ґ/+Ґ) break twice during one oscillation period, and the same cycling process of an energy transformation occurs as it takes place in rotated spin systems. As it is known, such a transformation is really implemented and a reactive power W_re occurring within the oscillation contour:

W_re = U_pL _p          (13)

where U_j, I_j are the actual values of voltage and current, correspondingly, exceeds the power of “loading” Q-fold. However, there is a problem to utilize mentioned power by transforming it into work, because supplying to a circuit the load having finite value of active resistance R_lo for the purpose of obtain output power W_lo:

W_lo = I²R_lo          (14)

must cause fast damping of resonant auto-oscillation process. This fact seemingly interferes to the energy transformation analogous to that described for rotated spin systems. However, we suggest it is not so and the energy transformation into another form but electricity in (a, b) states, say, into mechanical power, would provide a channel forming for the energy removal from the system along with performing some work. As exhibits a practice of FEG operation, it is essential [22] that the power dissipated in the load must not exceed some critical value to conserve the system self-maintenance in operation.

So, self-organizing systems similar to rotated spin ones twice during auto-oscillation period provide conditions needed for high intensity energy transfer from indefinite volume of environment to the system and reverse. The analogy between the mentioned system types can be strengthened if one applies dielectric (magnetic) material to considered contour parts (capacitor and coil, correspondingly) construction. In the case, we would deal with cyclic electric dipole polarization in capacitor and cyclic magnetization of domains in coil core, caused by not rotating but oscillating external fields.

Whether one suggests that the adequate physical carrier of above described energy transfer exists and those hypothetical processes can take place really, that mean occurring periodical manifold enhancing free energy in those types of systems and hypothetical possibility of the latter utilization for performing a work by means of partial “opening” of mentioned cyclic process. The relevant papers and patent applications on the free energy generating devices analyze allows to state that part of FEG machines represent themselves auto-oscillation systems and approaches described above are entirely applicable for the cases.

General principles of free energy generation

The above considerations demonstrate that there are two kinds of systems (situations) where and when restriction imposed by the 2^nd law of thermodynamic on the “2^nd type perpetual motion” implementation can be avoided. Thinking theoretically, that was not enough for the FEG operation explication till (i) possible limitations of analogy between thermodynamic and spin temperatures is unclear so the above described approach is just formal, and (ii) a probable carrier of suggested far-distant energy transfer is not identified and noted transfer is just hypothetical.

However, there are plenty occasions in a history of science when some entity first suggested as just mathematical mean then becomes fulfilled by a certain physical sense. The above consideration can look much more real if one takes into attention an existence of rather real than hypothetical carrier of irreversibility, negative entropy, super-light-speed information and interaction transfer, “space energy”, etc., embodied in a quantum of torsion fields (and radiations) called “torsion”. Namely the torsion fields and radiations represent themselves a missed link caused, in our opinion, both reality and unified nature of the two situations described above. The rotated spin system exhibit torsion interaction proper [23,24]. However, to interpret energy transformation processes occurring in auto-oscillation self-organizing systems, as torsion interactions, takes involving the consideration of torsion as a physical carrier of irreversibility and negative entropy [25]. Within this consideration, auto-oscillation systems are, in other words, “free energy receivers” tuned resonantly to indefinitely distant sources of FE, namely non-equilibrium systems, generation of excessive entropy as a sequel of irreversible process proceeding therein and proper sign torsions emission occur. In both cases, FE transformation in system is accompanied by implementation of negative temperatures in cyclic process which can be carried optimally under a condition of resonant coincidence of the cycle-driver (“loading”) and the system spin relaxation frequencies (6, 11). If it is really so, we can state that the spin and the “system” temperature behave themselves as related to the 2^nd law of thermodynamics as full analogs of thermodynamic temperature.

Our consideration of the energy source FEG gain energy from differs of the theory [3] about so called zero-point-energy (ZPE) existing in the form of the null (electromagnetic) vibrations transformation therein. Functional dependence of ZPE density r(w) and rotational frequency w is reported in [3] and previous papers by the same author is as follows:

          (15)

where p = 3,14…, c is an electromagnetic waves velocity. Here the first factor in brackets is a mode density per dw that is proportional to a 2^nd degree of frequency, second one is an energy per mode. As a result the ZPE density depends on the 3^rd degree of frequency.

As one can see, this expression leads directly to one more “catastrophe” similar to “ultraviolet catastrophe” physics passed through at the break of the ninetieth century, because total ZPE energy density is too huge. Taking into account this colossal energy density it is doubtful that a degree of its transformation into free energy by FEG can be so negligibly small and simultaneously have the same value in a wide frequency range, as it is reported about. We suggest that observed dependences of magnetic FEG output power on frequency W(w) are not a cubic ones but represent themselves low-frequency wings of the normal distribution characteristic of the resonance (6, 11) and that the space energy density is many decimal degrees of magnitude less than in Puthoff’s opinion [3].

Also, analyses of liquid-capillary [13] and thermoelectric solid state [6] FEG devices demonstrated that their output power correlate with solar activity variation in spite of the fact that noted devices were carefully screened of all kinds of solar electromagnetic radiations, which itself is a testimony to non-electromagnetic nature of the energy gained. Worth nothing that such “passive” devices not dealing with deliberate (external) exciting of a system power density yield is negligibly small, which exhibits, probably, a real estimation of space energy density. What about “active” (that unanimously means “resonant”, in our suggestion) FEGs, their output power can exceed the space energy of certain frequency quanta stored in operating volume of certain FEG.

Conclusion

So, we suggest that real operation of described systems qualified earlier as the “2^nd type perpetual motion” is possible under a certain condition that the source of energy dispelled in a space in the form of torsion radiation quanta of very wide frequency (and subsequent energy) range exists. That means that mentioned devices by no way disrupt the 1^st law of thermodynamics and do not represent themselves the 1^st type perpetual motion machines. Their apparent coefficient of performance (COP) exceeding a unity is not really so and represent itself just relation of output energy E_out nor to the input energy E_in but to the energy expended just for maintaining the process of energy transformation E_exp:

= E_out/E_exp≥ 1

Two versions of an energy dispelled in space gathering device construction are possible. Both of them are concerned with a cyclic process organization in a system, including negative temperatures creation and a temperature scale discontinuity passing at -Ґ ® +Ґ direction. Noted methods are either the rotated spin system or auto-oscillation self-organizing system implementation. The necessary criteria of self-maintained FEG having high output power density implementation are listed below:

1. For the case of self-organizing system usage a starting impulse is needed, that converts a system from basic equilibrium state of disordered phase into one of meta-stable non-equilibrium states of ordered self-organizing phase.

2. For both mentioned versions a organizing is essential, that exhibit itself a cyclic signal having a frequency equal to the system resonance frequency. The energy expended for the cycle-driver “loading“ E_con to be Q-fold less than the energy yield E_out, where Q is the system Q-factor (factor-of-merit) or its somewhat analog.

3. Creation of a way for converting the energy absorbed by the system into work at the moment of the former passed the temperature scale discontinuity -Ґ ® +Ґ at each auto-oscillation (rotation) cycle is needed for the FEG efficiency.

4. Takeoff of a part of free energy generated for the cycle-driver feeding is necessary for stable and continuous FEG operation.

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